Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 4

Research Paper Example The youth will opt to join this rebel groups and get a source of income no matter how low instead of having nothing. This leads to the growth of rebel groups that cause chaos and fight against the government’s regime causing political instability. Higher rates of youth unemployment lead to higher chances of rebel groups forming and rising against the government. Poverty has been noted to breed violent character. Unemployed youth will often find themselves in a state of poverty. This will force them to do anything to gain access to the resources they require such food, shelter, clothing, and money. Areas that portray high rate of youth unemployment also show an increase in crime. Unemployed youth will turn to robbery and looting to get what they do not have. This causes insecurity and unrest among the public and people will protest against the environment due to the insecurity. This can lead to political instability because people have lost faith in their governmentii. Unemployed youth look up to the government to create job opportunities for them. If the government fails to do this, the youth revolt and protest against the government for not being able to take care of the youths needs. This will lead to a need of overthrowing the government and putting into power people who will most likely look after the needs of the people. Many coups in history have taken place due to the people losing faith in their government. This leads to unrest and political instability. The labor market is directly related to youth unemploymentiii. If the labor market cannot absorb the sudden ‘youth bulge’, frustrations occur among the youth causing demonstrations and riots against the government. This will lead to disruption of economic activities and affect a country’s economical development. Employed people will also be affected and the whole country will generally move

Brand Equity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Brand Equity - Essay Example In my opinion, Starbucks Coffee is a brand that has developed a high level of brand equity. The question arises that what creates brand equity and how can it be managed. For most people, a brand is simply a name given to a particular product or service that is manufactured or offered by a particular company. Thus the brand name in time becomes associated with the company and reflects its quality of products or services. If successful, the company can also increase the number of items in its product line depending on the good reputation and name of its original product or service. Customers are likely to buy and try the new products or services if they have a need for them. This is also because of the positive image they have of the company and its earlier offerings. Another way of seeing brand equity is that it is the value of your product or service to the customer- it is the reason why he prefers your offering compared to others in the marketplace. This can be because of ambience, value for money, variety of offerings or any other reason. Here are some ways in which I th ink Starbucks has created its brand equity or value for the customer: Starbucks Coffee is known for the quality of its product offerings. Be it the rich brewed coffees and espresso-based hot and cold drinks, hot or cold sandwiches- everything spells quality. The customer can rely on this every time they walk into the store. What’s more, this principal value is followed all across Starbucks stores worldwide (Assistant, 2009). Most customers would equate Starbucks to a good live experience. If you are a regular customer, the hostess would not only remember your name, but also what you generally prefer and the quantity of sugar you like in your brew. The point that the coffee is made in front of you, where you can watch the process if you like, also helps Starbucks quality resonate in the mind of the customers. It is not surprising to find groups of friends or office colleagues coming

Garden Path Model And The Constraint Based Model

Garden Path Model And The Constraint Based Model Theories into sentence processing can be viewed from two main accounts; a modular account or an interactive account. Garden path model proposed by Fraizer and Rayner (1982) supports the modular account, arguing sentence processing involves the analysis of each individual unit or module of a sentence, with little or no feedback, thus inhibiting correction. Whereas an interactive account supported by the constraint based theory, (McDonald, 1994) argues sentence processing involves immediate incorporation of all available information in creation of the final output. This essay will explore principles of both Garden Path Model and Constraint Based Theory of sentence processing, highlighting their similarities and differences as well as major strengths and weaknesses associated with both models. This essay will continuously compare and contrast both models on issues such as; minimal attachment and late closure, reanalysis, sentence length, contextual properties, working memory capacities and evidence from event related potentials in an attempt to answer the question in focus. The Garden path model proposed by Frazier and Rayner (1982), argues readers only consider initially one syntactic structure for any given sentence and meaning is not involved in the selection of preliminary syntactical meaning. Thus, readers and listeners can be misled by ambiguous sentences (i.e. garden path sentences). Whereas Constraint based theory proposed by MacDonald (1994), argues all relevant information is available immediately to the parser during reading and listening. The incoming information is analysed and all possible constraints or outputs are activated and ranked according to the strength of the subsequent activation. The syntactic structure receiving the most support from the constraints will be highly activated and thus chosen. In essence, activated constraints are in competition with one another and when two constraints are equally activated ambiguity arise. These two theories propose conflicting, basic ideologies; Garden Path model argues only one syntactic stru cture is initially considered and meaning is not involved in selection of syntactic meaning, whereas, constraint based theory argues all relevant information is used and several syntactical meanings are initially considered before the most appropriate is selected. Frazier and Rayners Garden Path Model proposes that listeners and readers chose the simplest syntactical structure by implementing two general principles; minimal attachment and late closure. The principle of minimal attachment states the grammatical structure producing the fewest nodes is preferred. Rayner and Pollatsek (1989) provided partial experimental support for minimal attachment. They used the sentences; The girl knew the answer by heart and The girl knew the answer was wrong. Rayner and Pollatsek observed the principle of minimal attachment led to a grammatical structure in which the answer is regarded as the direct object of the verb knew, this is appropriate for the first sentence but leads to ambiguity in the second sentence. Therefore it can be argued the principle of minimal attachment may not work for all sentences, highlighting a weakness. Altmann et al (1998), argue all possible meanings of a sentence are considered during, and at the end of a sentence and principle s of minimal attachment are inadequate in sentence processing, thus supporting the constraint based theory. Frazier and Rayner (1982) argue minimal attachment and late closer attempt to reduce pressure on working memory during sentence processing, making it less economically taxing, a strength of this theory. They recorded participants eye movements whist they read sentences like; since Jay always jogs a mile seems like a short distance. If readers construct both or all possible syntactic structures, there should be additional processing time at the point of disambiguation. Eye movement data provided support for the predictions of the garden path model. These finding are in opposition with the Constraint based theory that argues several constraints are activated before the output is chosen, thus making this method of sentence processing more taxing than the Garden Path model in which no interpretation is considered until the end of sentences (Clifton, 1993). Fodor and Inoue (2000) a rgue the parser works on the method of minimal processing and will do the minimum amount of analysis possible, supporting the Garden Path Model. Minimal attachment is argued to be universal to all languages (Frazier and Rayner (1982). However several studies contradict this argument. Cueto and Mitchell (1988), Carreiras and Clifton (1993, 1999) and Traxler et al (1998) found a low attachment preference within the English language but found a high attachment preference within the Spanish language. Thus meaning minimal attachment would not be applicable in the Spanish language. Thus conflicting the assumptions of the Garden Path Model. Mitchell et al (1995) argued attachment preferences may be different between languages due to the fact that in some languages, high relative clause attachment is most frequent, whereas in other languages such as English, low clause attachment is most frequent. As a result of these findings, cross-linguistic differences in clause attachments present a pr oblem for the Garden Path Model as the principles of minimal attachment and late closure assume a universal preference for low attachment. Highlighting a weakness The principle of late closer proposes new words encountered in sentences are attached to the current phrase or clause if grammatically permissible. This principle conflicts assumptions of the constraint based theory as meaning is assigned as new words are attached rather than when all information is available. Alternatively supporting the Constraint based theory Carreiras and Clifton (1993) provided evidence that readers do not follow the principle of late closure. They presented participants with sentences such as The spy that shot the daughter of the colonel who was standing on the balcony. According to late closure, readers or listeners should perceive this sentence as meaning the colonel, rather than the daughter, was standing on the balcony, however this was not observed. Principles of minimal attachment and late closure within the garden path model determine peoples initial analysis of sentences, however if initial analysis is inconsistent due to ambiguous sentences, a process of reanalysis must occur (Frazier and Rayner 1982). Reanalysis occurs when initial analysis is inconsistent with later information encountered. According to VanGompel and Pickering (1999) within the constraint based theory all possible analyses are activated with most appropriate being selected, thus meaning reanalysis does not take place. According to MacDonalds (1994) constraint based theory, processing difficulty only arises when two or more constraints have approximately equal activation resulting in competition. Constraints at the beginning of the sentence strongly activate one analysis but, disambiguating information encountered later on activates an alternative analysis, both possible analyses having equal activation competition results. This disambiguating information i ncreases time taken for the incorrect analysis to be inhibited and results in processing difficulties, a weakness of this theory. Ferreira and Henderson (1991) argued the further the head noun is from the point of disambiguation, the stronger readers or listeners will commit to a thematic analysis, thus making reanalysis more difficult. Another conflicting argument to Frazier and Rayners reanalysis principle was put forward by Sturt et al (2002) who showed that during reanalysis, attachment to a recent phrase is preferred to attachment to a more distant phrase, arguing reanalysis and reattachment of more distant phrases are more costly. However reanalysis does not always occur when disambiguation is encountered, highlighting a weakness of this theory. Christianson et al (2001) argued people do not always successfully discard their initial analysis after syntactic disambiguation is experienced, which is in contrast to most models of reanalysis and the garden path model. Participants read the sentence; while Anna dressed the baby that was small and cute spit up on the bed. Participants correctly identified who spat up on the bed, suggesting they had correctly analysed the baby as the subject of spit up. When asked if Anna dressed the baby, most participants answered yes. This finding led Christianson et al to conclude that readers adopted the baby as the subject, whilst maintaining the incorrect analysis where the baby was the object of the preceding verb dressed. Findings from this study provide arguments in contray to principles of successful reanalysis. Sentence length can have an influence in the process of reanalysis, but it has also been argued that sentence length can have an effect on overall initial processing of sentences prior to any reanalysis. Ferreira, Christianson and Hollingworth (2001) argued longer phrases are harder to process and using minimal attachment more errors are likely to be made, showing a weakness of this theory. It has been found that disfluencies (including filled and silent pauses) lengthen sentences and make them harder to process. Bailey and Ferreira (2003) investigated the effects of sentence disfluencies, observing that disfluencies allowed parsers to linger on the initial parse and commit to an incorrect interpretation via minimal attachment and late closer, indicating a weakness of this theory. Christianson et al (2001) support this argument, concluding; the longer a parser lingers on an incorrect parse, the more likely they are to maintain an incorrect interpretation. Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009) investigated the effects of disfluencies on garden path processing. They found disfluencies resulted in more incorrect interpretations, suggesting sentence processing is not an all or none process, therefore discrediting the constraint based theory. Effective contextual properties have been found to provide supportive evidence for the constraint based theory. Spivey et al (2002) looked at eye movements in response to auditory garden path sentences within the context of visual arrays. They asked participants to put the apple on the towel in the box. They recorded participants eye movements to assess how the sentence was interpreted. According to the garden path model on the towel should initially be understood as the place where the apple should be put because it is the simplest syntactical structure. In the absence of visual context this is what was found. When the visual context consisted of two apples, one on a towel and the other on a napkin, participants rapidly interpreted on the towel as a way of identifying which apple was to be moved. Results show that visual contexts reduce ambiguity and prevent garden path effects. Event related potentials (ERP) have provided influential evidence in sentence processing. ERPs measure brain responses as the direct result of thought or perception. Osterhout and Nicol (1999) established an ERP of N400 following perception of semantic anomalies. Osterhout and Nicol (1999) found a syntactic anomaly produced an ERP of P600, As syntactic analysis only is involved in the garden path model, observing an ERP of P600 would indicate this model of processing. Osterhout, Holcomb and Swinney (1994) suggested that P600 is the marker of a garden path effect. However Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009) found that fluent garden path sentences resulted in P600 but garden path sentence containing a filled or silent pause activated an ERP of N400, this would suggest that these sentences are perceived as having a semantic anomaly which would discredit the garden path model of processing which claims semantic analysis is not involved in initial sentence analysis. P600 has been hypothesi sed to indicate memory updating and processes of reanalysis (Friederia 2001 and Frisch et al 2002), therefore being unique to the garden path model. Osterhout and Nicol (1999) have found a sentence containing both semantic and syntactic violations activate an ERP of both N400 and P600, suggesting semantic and syntactic processing work independently, supporting the garden path model rather than the constraint based theory. In conclusion the garden path model and the constraint based theory of sentence processing argue fairly conflicting ideologies, thus making these models very different. The garden path model argues the principles of minimal attachment and late closure, which is in contrast to the constraint based theory. The constraint based theory argues all possible interpretations of sentences are activated with the most appropriate being selected, arguing the absence of reanalysis; again this is in contrast to the garden path model. The garden path model only initially considers syntactical information whereas constraint based theory considers all available information but is very taxing on working memory. Both models have been shown to have many strengths and weaknesses. In relation to the title question it has been shown that both models offer reasonably contrasting arguments of sentence processing and no sole conclusive model of sentence processing has yet been established. Word Length= 2013 Bailey and Ferreira (2003) in Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Garden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. Carreiras and Clifton (1993). In Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 363. Christianson et al (2001) In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 291-292). Oxford: University Press. Christianson et al (2001) in Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Garden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. Clifton et al (2003) In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 290). Oxford: University Press. Cueto and Mitchell (1988), In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 293-294). Oxford: University Press. Datta et al (2004) in Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Garden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. Ferreira, Christianson and Hollingworth (2001), Misinterpretations of Garden-Path Sentences: Implications for Models of Sentence Processing and Reanalysis. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, Vol 10, No.1, pp3-18. Ferreira and Clifton (1986) In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 289). Oxford: University Press. Ferreira and Clifton (1986). InEysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 361-364. Ferreira and Henderson (1991) In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 291). Oxford: University Press. Fodor and Inoue (2000), cited in Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 361. Frazier and Rayner (1982), cited in Gazzaniga, M.,S,, Ivry, R,B and Mangun, G.,R. Cognitive Neuroscience. The biology of the Mind. (first edition) Norton and Company. New York and London. Pp. 300-301. Frazier and Rayner (1982) In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 289-307). Oxford: University Press. Frazier and Rayner (1982), cited in Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. Astudents Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 361. Friederia (2001), in Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Garden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. Frisch et al (2002) in Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Garden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. Frisch, Schlesewsky, Saddy and Alpermann (2002). in Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Garden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. Harley, T (Second Edition). The Psychology of Language. From Data to Theory. Hove:Psychology Press. Hills and Murray (2000).Iin Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 361. Kolk et al (2003), in Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Granden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. Lau, E and Ferreir, F. Lingering Effects of Disfluent Material on Comprehension of Garden Path Sentences. Language and Cognitive Processes. 2005 Vol 20 (5), 633-666. MacDonald (1994), cited in Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 364. Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Granden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. McRae et al (1998), In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 293). Oxford: University Press. Mitchell et al (1995), In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 293-294). Oxford: University Press. Osterhout, Holcomb and Swinney (1994). In Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Garden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. Osterhout (1997) in Maxfield, Lyon and Silliman (2009). Disfluencies along the Granden Path: Brain electrophysiological evidence of disrupted sentence processing. Brain and Language, 111, 86-100. Osterhout and Nicol (1999), cited in Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 36362-363. Rayner, Garrod and Perfetti (1992), in Ferreira, Christianson and Hollingworth (2001), Misinterpretations of Garden-Path Sentences: Implications for Models of Sentence Processing and Reanalysis. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, Vol 10, No.1, pp3-18. Rayner and Pollatsek (1989) cited in Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 361. Spivey, Tanenhaus, Eberhard and Sedivy (2002) cited in Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 363. Spivey, Tanenhaus, Eberhard and Sedivy (1995), cited in Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 363. Sturt et al (2002) In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 291). Oxford: University Press. Traxler et al (1998). cited in Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 361 .Trueswekk, Tanehaus and Garnsey (1994). In Eysenck, M, W and Keane, M.,T. Cognitive Psychology. A students Handbook. (fith edition), Psychology Press. pp. 362. VanGompel, R and Pickering, M. ( ) Syntactic Parsing. In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 289-307). Oxford: University Press. VanGompel (2006) In Gaskell, G. The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. (pp 292). Oxford: University Press. Van Gompel, Sentenct Processing, in Brown et al (2006), Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. (second edition) Oxford: Elsevier.

Pilgrimages to Sacred Sites as Tourism Essay -- Tourism

In discussing the viewpoint that pilgrimage to sacred site is a form of tourism there are certain terms that require definition: pilgrimage, sacred and tourism. The Oxford English Dictionary, (OED, 2012) defines pilgrimage as ‘a journey undertaken to a place of particular significance or interest’. It is usually as an act of religious devotion, homage and respect and those on a pilgrimage are referred to as Pilgrims. Waterhouse (2009, p199) defines religion as ‘a system of practices, institutions and beliefs that provide meaning to life and death’. Waterhouse’s definition not only encompasses the five main religions but also the various sub divisions and alternative religions. Tourism is defined by OED (2012) as ‘the theory and practice of touring, travelling for pleasure’ and thus a person on tour is defined as a tourist. The OED (2012) defines sacred as ‘dedicated, set apart, exclusively appropriated to some person or some special purpose’. This essay will discuss the view that pilgrimage to sacred sites is a form of tourism by outlining the debates surrounding sacred sites and between different factions. The essay will then apply these arguments and ideas to Stonehenge and Avebury. It will also look at the associations of Pilgrimage and Tourism within the ideologies surrounding leisure and their application to Glastonbury. The definition of sacred as a place separate from the secular world has different connotations and meaning for different individuals and groups. The main academic argument is between the ideas that the site is inherently sacred or is the product of human effort. Eliade (1961) argues that the ‘manifestation of something of a wholly different order, a reality that does not belong to our world in objects tha... ...ity, pp.10-34 Pike, J. (2008), ‘Leisure, Laziness and feeling good’, in Brunton, D. (ed), Place and Leisure AA100 Book 4, Milton Keynes, The Open University, pp.3-10 Reader, I. (2012), ‘Pilgrims and Pilgrimage: place and Journey in Cultures and Faiths Worldwide’, available from http://www.york.ac.uk/projects/pilgrimage/content/faiths.html accessed on the 11/5/12 ‘Sacred Space and Landscape’ (2008) (aa100DVD Video), Milton Keynes, The Open University The Open University (2008), AA100 Illustration Book (Plates for Books 3 and 4), Milton Keynes, The Open University. Waterhouse , H. (2009), ‘The Dalai Lama’, in Moohan, E (ed), Reputations AA100 Book 1, Milton Keynes, The Open University, pp.197-229 Wolffe, J. (2008), ‘Tradition and Dissent in English Christianity’ in Price, C (ed), Tradition and Dissent AA100 Book 2, Milton Keynes, The Open University, pp71-106

In Buried Secrets: Truth and Human Rights in Guatemala Virginia Sanford

In Buried Secrets: Truth and Human Rights in Guatemala Virginia Sanford goes into the heart of Guatemala to six different locations of clandestine cemeteries to interview survivors of mass suicides that occurred during the period that is now known as La Violencia. Sanford strives to give voice to the Maya, who have been silenced all these years, and chose to have them write their own history of what happened during those dark years.By uncovering the dark secrets of the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Union as well as those of the Guerilla Army of the poor, the Guatemalan people were able to begin to heal, to find justice, to become inspired to organize again for social change and to ultimately take control back over their own lives and participate in the democracy that they paid so dearly for (p. 73). Sanford constructs a â€Å"phenomenology of terror† through a forensic anthropological study of the clandestine grave sites at six different locations across Guatemala that the crimes against the Maya ultimately resulted in attempted genocide.These massacres occurred during a period known as La Violencia (1978-1982) under the regime of General Lucas Garcia (1978-1982) and General Rios Montt (March 1982-Aug 1983) (p. 14). According to Sanford, La Violencia went from selective terror into mass terror culminating in the â€Å"scorched earth† campaign and ultimately the violence did not cease until the disarming of the last civil patrols and the signing of the 1996 Peace Accords (p. 15).The Maya were the weak common people caught in the middle of a vicious war between the communist guerilla and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Union (GNRU); where both sides took advantage of the Maya using them for food and shelter and killing them with little thought if they got in the way for any reason (p. 101). The Maya were simple farming people for the most part and their rights were easily stripped away and they were treated like slaves for years and after La Violencia, they were left maimed, poor and powerless.The phenomenology of terror that Sanford constructed from the death records, bone analysis, testimonio and other public records/media consists of seven escalating phases of violence and domination (p. 32). . Through analysis of these phases Sanford proves the depth of the GNRU’s crimes and therefore brings them out in public for the Maya people to begin their process of healing. The phemomenology of terror starts with the â€Å"pre-massacre community organizing† which amounted to the Maya’s attempt to better their own community often through the local churches to build infrastructure for clean water etc.Because this organizing sometimes included guerilla organizing (which Sanford indicates was often brought about by fear tactics on the guerilla’s part), it attracted violent repercussions from the GNRU (p. 127). The phase two, â€Å"the modus operandi of army massacres,† Sanford describes as th e beginning of genocide because the GNRU felt they could not prevent the guerilla from organizing and they used this as an excuse to kill innocent civilians who might or might not have been involved, in order to scare everyone else away from the idea of helping the guerilla (p.129). In the â€Å"post-massacre life in flight,† or phase three, the Guatemalans fled the killing fields of their own villages and took refuge in the mountains with little or no supplies or protection against the elements and many of them died of illness or exposure. The guerilla found them here too and sometimes forced them to kill their own children in order to survive (p. 132). In phase four the â€Å"army captures a community† and the Maya were basically treated like prisoners of war: they were tortured, raped, punished, and were forced to work for their food (p.135). In phase five, â€Å"model villages,† the Guatemalans experienced something similar to German concentration camps wher e they lived under constant military control and were forced to work under fear of being tortured or killed (p. 138). In phase six, â€Å"the ongoing militarization of community life,† the civil patrollers, or police, were handed over control from the army but the struggle was still the same, the Maya continued to experience torture and abuse of power(p. 141).In Sanford’s last denoted phase titled â€Å"living memory of terror,† the Maya struggle to put their lives back together while living in terror and with diminished rights. The police continued to control their lives and prevent them from bettering their communities in any way (p. 143). The uncovering of the phenomenology of terror is precisely how the healing process was instigating. The Maya people realized their need for healing when the bodies of their loved ones were being uncovered and when they heard the stories of their peers being told and realized that their own story needed to be revealed as well .Sanford chose multiple excavation sites in order to have a variety of communities but also so that she could generalize. The communities she chose included: Ixil, K’iche’, Kaqchikel, Q’eqchi’ and Achi villages from the northwest highlands to the central lowlands to the eastern mountains (p. 17). Uncovering these clandestine grave sites amounted to taking back their villages, taking back their loved ones and giving them the respectful burial that they deserved. In doing this it created a political space that was stolen from the Maya in the reign of terror (p.73). This political space allowed the people to come together and gain power in numbers; they never allowed themselves to be separated off so that no one person could be sacrificed for the cause of bringing out the truth of these massacres. Even those who still believed that the GNRU were telling the truth about the massacres, that the only people killed were communist guerillas, were brought to see t he truth about La Violencia because â€Å"the bones don’t lie† (p. 47).Even military officials came to give public recognition of the murders but gave many justifications for their ruthless actions (p. 16). After Sanford herself uncovered a woman’s corpse face down in a mass grave holding a small baby, it became clear that civilians, including women, children and the elderly were a large part of the sacrifice made at mass executions made by the GNRU (p. 43). Records indicate that most of the bodies at the Plan de Sanchez site were women, children and elderly (p. 47).The Maya went to the Ministerio Publico (prosecutor) as a group and said, â€Å"We want a Christian burial for our families because they aren’t dogs, and we don’t want them piled up in those graves like dogs† (p. 39). They were not put down by the Rabinal when they were ordered to attend a meeting that amounted to them trying to control the Maya and prevent them from colluding wi th the foreigners to uncover the truth. â€Å"Leave the dead in peace† the sub-commander told them, but the Maya already knew that the dead were not in peace and stopped at nothing to uncover the rest of the truth so that they could be (p.44). By pushing forward and sticking together the Maya was able to strip the power from the â€Å"memory of terror† to hold them down and instead used it to drive them forward for change and justice (p. 230). Sanford shows that the excavation process gave healing through several different avenues, besides giving the Maya strength in coming together and publicly revealing the truth, the excavation also brought healing through religious ritual and public consecration of the burial sites.The rituals at burial sites â€Å"implicate the enactment of deeply held beliefs about the individual and community identity and reckoning in the past as well as the present† which Sanford believed was the powerful key to opening a future for the Maya in their own broken land (p. 40). Long after the confession and re-burial, the temples built on the sites allowed the Maya to continue their grief process and to continue to heal and have a place where they could go for remembrance of their loved ones and the pain they experienced (p. 245).In addition, the exhumation inspired the local people to organize once again to try to better their communities and used the memory of terror as inspiration to work hard for change rather than allowing it to hold them down in fear (p. 211). These local initiatives included things such as support groups and groups advocating yet more exhumations. (p. 243). Sanford describes another type of healing that took place because of the exhumations and resulting testimonies that amounts to the clinical treatment for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: testimonial therapy (p. 239).By giving survivors the chance to â€Å"understand the impossible nature of the situation to which they had been exposed† and to transfer â€Å"the burden of responsibility to the perpetrators of violence and to the repressive structures that fomented their traumas† they were able to heal the emotional wounds of those experiences (p. 241). The final step in healing is providing the people with justice through charging those guilty of leading the massacres. Ultimately the confessions and the exhumations helped to bring those guilty of these horrible crimes to light for the sake of justice.The Maya faced the obstacle of â€Å"auto-limpieza,† which was the act of killing those who were in charge of giving orders for the military on behalf of the men who were in the upper echelons of the military power structure—in other words, the men who could tell the truth about who was ultimately responsible for these massacres were killed (p. 211). In addition to this obstacle, the government attributed any challenge to their authority to equate to a national security threat. So when the Maya be gan to search for those guilty of these war crimes, they faced the old threat of terror (p.251). According to Sanford, â€Å"justice, rule of law, and truth commission are now seen as a critical step for societies experiencing the transition from military rule,† therefore it was of utmost importance to the Maya to pursue justice and bring closure on the dark La Violencia era (p. 249). With the help of other Central American countries and international organizations such as the Human Rights Watch and the United Nations, the Maya people were given the added strength to bring justice to at least a few war criminals.Without their help the Maya may never have been able to overcome the memory of terror which stood in the way of them being able to participate in the democracy that they paid so dearly for (p. 253). Ultimately the trials of the authors of this violence helped to construct, â€Å"a viable democracy by demonstration that the rule of law extends to the powerful as well as to the poor† (p. 270). In conclusion, Virginia Sanford shows through a forensic anthropological study of the massacre sites that genocide did indeed occur against the Mayan people and she lays out the timeline of violence in seven phases that she calls the phenomenology of terror.Through the process of constructing this phenomenology the Maya are brought together again and inspired to better their community and fight for justice. They experience healing through testimonio (of their PTSD) and through public recognition of their loved one’s sacrifices in religious ritual and the consecration of the burial sites. By consecrating those public spaces and bringing to justice those who were responsible, the Maya were able to break fear of the memory of terror and take their rightful place in the democracy that they paid so dearly for.

Beauty Is The Quality Of Beauty - 988 Words

What is Beauty? Greek Philosopher, Plato, once said: â€Å"Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder.† Everyone has different points of view about what beauty is. Some people may perceive beauty as how someone looks on the outside. Others may see beauty as being confident in your own skin. According to dictionary.com, beauty is the quality in a thing or person that gives intense pleasure to the mind. For me, beauty comes in act of kindness, in nature, and smiling faces. Beauty comes in act of kindness. When I was in tenth grade, I got the opportunity to volunteer at a homeless shelter. So, my Saturday mornings became occupied. My job there was to hand out personal hygiene items after the homeless people have finished their†¦show more content†¦I took a moment to look at the rich blue water as I heard the sound of the waves softly crashing against the rocks. As I get in the water, I feel the power of the wave pulling me towards it pushing me further and faster away from t he sand into the deep water. I got the opportunity to see a dolphin jump out of the water. I took hours looking at the horizon. As I stayed there look out into the horizon, the sun has almost set just the tip is left to disappear into the water. The sky changed from blue to yellow and orange to pink and purpl. I got to see the sky go from day to night. As I start walking back I took one last glimpse of the sky I could see the bright and high moon. I could see the horizon with moonlight reflection in the water. It is certainly easy to understand why nature is appealing. Beauty is in nature, but it can also be in smiling faces. When I was in high school, I volunteered to make and hand out food to those who were less fortunate. We first stopped at a shelter where people were sitting either watching television, reading the newspaper, or just sitting and talking to a friend. We walked in and put a box of sandwiches on a table, and started to hand them out. The people were very grateful a nd said thank you with huge smiles on their faces. Watching those people smile, bite into sandwiches, and drink their drink warmed my heart. Their smiles made me smile. Knowing that my time was used to make someone’s day more hopeful. I beganShow MoreRelatedBeauty Is The Quality Of Beauty985 Words   |  4 PagesGreek Philosopher, Plato, once said: â€Å"Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder.† Everyone has different points of view about what beauty is. Some people may perceive beauty as how someone looks on the outside. Others may see beauty as being confident in your own skin. According to dictionary.com, beauty is the quality in a thing or person that gives intense pleasure to the mind. For me, beauty comes in act of kindness, in nature, and smiling faces. Beauty comes in act of kindness. When I wasRead MoreQuality Assurance Plan For 4rever Beauty1540 Words   |  7 PagesQuality Objectives: Running head: Quality Assurance 2 This Quality Assurance Plan for 4REVER beauty been created by its Quality Assurance Team leader in order to help improve its services by improving the market presence of its new 5 products-shape up herbal organic tea, sandalwood, ayur body massage oil, size 90 tablets and herbal shampoo. And to inform employees of the company’s current statusRead MoreQuality Assurance Plan For 4rever Beauty1533 Words   |  7 PagesThis Quality Assurance Plan for 4REVER beauty been created by its Quality Assurance Team leader in order to help improve its services by improving the market presence of its new 5 products-shape up herbal organic tea, sandalwood, ayur body massage oil, size 90 tablets and herbal shampoo. And to inform employees of the company’s current status and direction. 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Waterborne Essay Example Pdf - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2601 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Chemistry Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? What are the application differences of a Polyurethane dispersion coating compared to a solvent based polyurethane and what are the advantages upon each other? A polyurethane coating is a versatile product with many advantages upon other coating systems. A major disadvantage of classical, solvent based polyurethane coatings, are the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the wet state. New regulations force formulators to keep the VOC content below 350 g/l. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Waterborne Essay Example Pdf" essay for you Create order Recent developments dealt with this problem. Developers have succeeded in making a polyurethane dispersion in water, eliminating most of the volatile organic solvents. However, the costs of a so called water borne polyurethane are higher than that of a solvent based polyurethane. A question that may arise is whether or not the dispersed polyurethane performs the same way as the classical, solvent based, polyurethanes and whether or not it is worth the money. Besides possible differences in performance, processing techniques may differ. The goal of this investigation is to give an overview of the differences between the performance, processing and cost between a polyurethane dispersion and solvent based polyurethanes. The major formulations of both types will be summarized and compared to find the best coating. The chemistry of PU A polyurethane (PU) is a polycondensation reaction product of an isocyanate with a monomer. The isocyanate must have at least two functional groups and the monomer at least two alcohol groups. The catalyst for the reaction can be a tertiary amine like dimethylcyclohexylamine or organic metallic materials like dibutyltin dilaturate. The condensation of a cyanate with a hydroxyl end-group results in a urethane linkage. Both the isocyanate and the hydroxyl alcohol (diol) need to be bi-functional to form polyurethane. The reaction mechanism of the formation of PU catalyzed by a tertiary amine is given by: Figure 1: reaction mechanism of the catalyzed condensation reaction of PU by a tertiary amine Many isocyanates can be used but MDI, aliphatics such as H12MDI, HDI, IPDI and TDI are the most widely used among others. MDI consumption exceed 45% of the total amount of isocyanates used, closely followed by aliphatics (35-40%) and TDI (15%). Whilst the reactivity of the isocyanat e determents the rate of the reaction, the main properties of the PU is devised from the diol. As with the choice of an isocyanate, a wide variety of diols can be used. EG, BDO, DEG, glycerin and TMP are all useable. For hard and weatherable coatings acrylic and polyester polyols tend to be preferred. Polyols with a low molecular weight as the main reactant produces polymer chains with more urethane groups hence a harder and stiff polymer is formed. High molecular weight polyols however produces a more flexible polymer. Also a low functionality long-chain polyol produces soft and flexible PU while short-chain polyols with high functionality makes more cross-linked products which are more rigid. Different types of PU formulations PU coatings can be divided into two main groups, namely into 1 and 2 pack systems (1k and 2k). The 1k system basically contains a dissolved, fully reacted PU whilst a 2k system can contain partially reacted PU and unreacted monomers. Both systems can be solvent-based or waterborne. Furthermore there are several curing (or drying) systems known, each resulting in different performing coatings. Two-component or 2k As mentioned briefly 2k systems are reactive and the primary reaction is of isocyanate with polyols. The main disadvantage of a 2k system is the pot-life. When the isocyanate is added the mixture begins to react and hardens. However, the main advantage of a reactive system is the outstanding mechanical performance. Because the PU particles react and crosslink, an endless polymer forms which is hard and chemical resistant. Two-component systems include solvent-based and waterborne formulations. Solvent-based 2kcoatings are obtained by mixing aliphatic isocyanates with polyester polyols or blends of polyester with acrylic grades. Formulations like these cure by partially physical drying and cross-linking with the isocyanate. Solvent-based 2k formulations are mostly used in the automotive and aviation industry as a finish coating. Waterborne 2k coatings are formulated with dispersible isocyanates and water-dispersible polyols such as polyacrylates or emulsifiable polyesters . The most commonly used isocyanate is a HDI trimer but IPDI trimers can also be used. Aromatic isocyanates cannot be used in waterborne formulations because they react dangerously with water. Dispersible isocyanates can be used as such or can, by partial reaction with a dispersible polyol, be emulsified, making it easier to mix. However some waterborne systems still need up to 10% co-solvent to form a homogeneous finish. These formulations cure by partially physical drying and by cross-linking but can also be thermally cured at temperatures ranging from 20 ËÅ ¡C to 80 ËÅ ¡C. Waterborne 2k systems are frequently used as protective coatings in the transportation, machinery and furniture industry. Their high flexibility also makes it possible for use on polymeric and wooden surfaces. One-component or 1k A 1k PU coating consists of partially reacted polymers (prepolymers) which are liquid at room temperature. These prepolymers are synthesized by reacting MDI, HDI or TDI with a polyester or polyester polyols. The main advantage of a one-component system is that no mixing is required and pot life is no issue. 1k systems are storage stable with a shelf life of up to six months. However a disadvantage is that most 1k formulations are not cross-linked making them less hard and vulnerable to solvents. 1k formulations are broadly used as maintenance and repair coatings for their ease in application and mechanical behavior. They are used for painting steel constructions such as bridges and other large steel structures where corrosion protection is needed. Solvent-based 1k coatingsare obtained through reacting aromatic or aliphatic isocyanates (MDI and IPDI) with polyesters or polyether polyols. This reaction forms high molecular weight linear PUs. Commonly used additives are cha in extenders. Curing occurs by evaporation of the solvent but 1k systems can be formulated so they cure by oxidation, with moisture and even by UV-radiation. Waterborne 1k or better known as PUDs are fully reacted polyurethane systems. The PU particles have hydrophilic groups in their backbone and are maximum one tenth of a micrometer in length, dispersed in water. This makes a both chemically and colloidal stable mixture (Figure 2). A PUD can also be formed by incorporating a surfactant. PUDs are currently very popular because they are environmentally friendly, but still being able to perform reasonably. Because PUDs are relatively expensive they are mixed with acrylic grades to lower the material costs. However more acrylic means less hardness. 1k waterborne formulations can cure physical, by oxidation and by UV-radiation. There are formulations at the market containing no solvent. These coatings find their application in the building sector. To obtain solvent-free formulations MDI is reacted with polyether or oil-modified polyester polyols. To obtain higher hardness chain extenders and catalysts are added to the formulation. Drying systems As mentioned above the way a coating cures strongly effects the final performance of the coating. The way a coating dries is dependant of its formulation. A 2k system can cure on air, by heat and under influence of UV. One-component systems can cure physically, with moisture, by oxidation, under influence of UV-radiation and by heat. Physical drying basically means that the solvent containing the PU evaporates, leaving the PU to form a film. A major disadvantage of this way of drying is that there is no cross-linking between the PU particles. This drying mechanism affects some one component systems. UV curing coatings can be formulated as solvent-based or waterborne and both 1k and 2k. In a UV-curing formulation the catalyst is inactive in absence of UV-radiation; this behavior is seen with a photo-initiator. When UV-radiation hits the catalyst it unblocks and becomes active and initiates the curing. A schematic representation of this process is shown in Figure 3. UV-cur ing coatings are predominantly used as automobile finishes as it has unmatchable hardness and gloss. Oxidative drying is a process which is used with a special type of 1k PU coatings. So called oil-modified PUs (OMU) are synthesized through an addition reaction of isocyanate with a hydroxyl bearing, fatty acid modified ester (TDI). To obtain higher densities more isocyanate can be added but this means that more solvent is needed, as much as 550 g/l (not VOC-compliant). Natural oils like linseed oil can be used as the diol and a mineral spirit can be used as the solvent. An OMU can be solvent- or water-based and cures by reacting with air surrounding the coating. The fatty acid groups of the oil (attached to the PU) form cross-links with each other by mean of oxidation. OMUs have better mechanical and weathering properties than unmodified, non-reactive alkyds, but reactive PU coatings are superior. OMUs are predominantly used as wood finishes for their distinctive yellowi ng/aging which some formulators prefer. Moisture curing PU (MCPU) coatings are formulated with NCO-terminated PU prepolymers. The NCO groups react with atmospheric moisture which produces a amine-group. This further reacts with remaining isocyanate to form highly cross-linked urea-networks. MCPU coatings have superior hardness, strength and stiffness. Even though the coating is cross-linked a MCPU has a relatively high flexibility. Because a MCPU cures with moisture this strongly affects the storage stability. Thermal curing formulations are based on deactivated isocyanate mixed with a polyol. This semi-one-component formulation is stable at room temperature but when heated (100-200 ËÅ ¡C) the deactivated isocyanate unblocks and reacts with the polyol, the same way as a reactive 2k coating. The isocyanates (aromatic or aliphatic) all have one active hydrogen. For blocking the isocyanate caprolactam is mostly used. A different way of blocking the isocyanate is creatin g uretidinedione or dimer links. Thermally cured coatings find their main usage on surfaces which need to withstand excessive heating and cooling cycles. An overview of all the PU coatings with their distinctive curing system is shown in Figure 5. Testing the coatings To make a comparison of different types of PU coatings the performance of a coating need to be tested. Because of the broad application possibilities of PU coatings and because of the need of a wide variety of different characteristics, the comparison will be narrowed down to floor coatings. Floor coatings are tested on mar and scuff resistance, taber abrasion, chemical resistance, color and KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness. Because thermal cured coatings are not applicable as flour coatings these formulations will not be used in the comparison. Moisture curedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Mar and scuff resistance Mar and scuff resistance or simply put resistance to marking can be measured by several methods. One of them is the pendulum method which consists of a pendulum arm with a hard-wood block attached to the end. The weighted block hits the coated panel four times and the average 20ËÅ ¡ gloss of the coating is measured before and after the test. The results are expressed as percentage 20ËÅ ¡ gloss retained and visual assessment of the panel (scratching and scuffing). Taber abrasion To test taber abrasion can be described as wear resistance. To measure abrasion resistance an arm is weighted with 1000 gram weights and attached to abrasive wheels (mostly consist of minerals). The arm makes 1000 cycles over the substrate. The initial weight of the coated substrate is compared with the weight after the test. The results are expressed in milligrams removed. Chemical resistance Chemical resistance is determined of dry films using eight household stains and chemicals. Test chemicals include MEK, olive oil, several cleaning chemicals, ethanol, white vinegar, water and 7% of ammonia solution. The chemicals are applied on a two-ply square towel on the test film, completely saturating the towel. The towel with the liquid is immediately covered with a watch glass. After a period of two hours the stains are removed and the panel is rinsed and dried. The impact of the chemicals on the coating is investigated immediately after the rinsing. The surface is investigated on discoloration, blistering and softening. Each chemical is rated on a scale of 1 to 10 with 10 being no effect. Color An important property to investigate of coatings is color, especially when evaluating PU coatings, because PUs tend to yellow, especially OMUs. The initial yellowness index of a coating is measured and after a period of lighting. The difference between initial and final yellowness index is also measured as the Delta E. When this value is below 1.0 the color difference is insignificant. The higher the value the more yellow the coating has become in a period of time. KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness is a method used for measuring the hardness of a coating. With this method a pendulum rocks back and forth over the coated substrate. The coating will dampen the rocking motion, slowing the pendulum down. The results with the KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness are expressed in seconds; the longer the pendulum rocks, the harder the coating. Solvent-based vs. waterborne For this comparison different formulations of each type are reviewed. Solvent-based 2k, solvent-based OMU and 2k UV are compared with waterborne OMU, 2k and a PUD/acrylic mixture. Data from sb OMU, PUD/acrylic, wb OMU and wb 2k is obtained from the article Oil-modified urethanes for clear wood finishes: Distinction or extinction by Richard A. Caldwell from Reichhold. Data from sb 2k, 2k UV and 100% PUD formulations are obtained from several commercially available coatings [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦]. Some values may differ because of the objective opinion of the investigator and the formulation. Some values are projected as expected where data was missing. These projections include chemical resistance of sb 2k, 2k UV and 100% PUD formulations. The taber abrasion resistance at 500 cycles of the wb OMU coating is multiplied by a statistically calculated value, using know data from other formulations, to obtain a value with 1000 cycles. As shown in Graph 1 a 2k UV coating has super ior mechanical properties (KÃÆ' ¶nig hardness and taber abrasion). This is because a 2k UV coating has a high amount of cross-linking. This can be related to the 20ËÅ ¡ gloss of the dried film. High gloss usually means high cross-linkage. The solvent-based 2k formulations perform comparable with 2k UV coatings but are slightly less cross-linked as shown in the gloss and the hardness. The waterborne formulations are all significantly softer but tend to be slightly more mar and scuff resistant. However the initial gloss values of these waterborne coatings are somewhat lower. It can also be found that the 1k OMU formulations perform better than most non-reactive coatings. However they tend to yellow and perform worse than reactive (2k) coatings. This shows that the oxidative cross-linking cannot be compared with the reactive cross-linking of 2k formulations. It is somewhat surprising that 100% PUD performs comparable with a wb 2k formulation. However the chemical resist ance and the scuff resistance are lower showing the benefits of cross-linking. Conclusion If a hard coating with high gloss is wishful UV cured 2k coatings are the best choice. The best mar and scuff resistance is obtained with waterborne formulations but these show less hardness and chemical resistance. Solvent-based systems have an overall better performance than waterborne systems but VOC regulations restrict the amount of solvents used, causing a lower amount of solids possible. This results in less cross-linking hence less hardness and chemical resistance. Even though high VOC content solvent-based coatings perform better, VOC regulations cause a shift to waterborne formulations which are increasingly performing better. During the investigation it became clear that a good comparison between different PU formulations is a nearly impossible task because of the large amount of different possible formulations of each class. Waterborne PU coatings, when properly formulated, can meet the performance of solvent-based coatings, especially when compared with VOC-c ompatible solvent-based coatings but with a higher price. Eventually VOC regulations are further sharpened causing a market shift towards waterborne formulations, making them worth the money.